part in counseling sessions and also in civic action pro­jects. After a few months of operation, Armstrong end­ed the program, on the grounds that it had achieved the objective of alleviating the MAG-16 drug problem. He recalled later that he "caught a good bit of static" for introducing it; but he insisted: "I felt that we had an operational problem; I took an operational solu­tion at the time. It worked .... If I'm ever faced with the same situation again, I'll do as I did then."*88

Compared to race and drugs, political dissent and refusal to engage in combat were minor problems for III MAF. Antiwar and radical groups, such as the American Servicemen's Union and the Movement for a Democratic Military, won adherents and established coffee houses and underground newspapers at Marine bases in the United States, Okinawa, and Japan, but few agitators appeared in III MAF units. Those who did found themselves under close command surveil­lance and lacking outside civilian support, accom­plished little. Ill MAF reported no collective refusals of Marines who were unwilling to go to the field to fight with their units although some individual Ma­rines refused, but these were generally individual cases of combat fatigue or disobedience and the com­manders treated them as such. In many units, dis­regard for Marine Corps standards of appearance and military courtesy was common; especially to veteran NCOs, the general attitude of junior enlisted Marines seemed defiant and hostile. On their side. enlisted men expressed anger at an impersonal "Green Machine." These tensions never reached massive proportions, although they contributed to occasional acts of violence against officers and NCOs.89

To rid itself of problem Marines of all sons, during 1970 III MAF relied increasingly on administrative dis­charges.** Early in the year, General Chapman an­ticipating post-Vietnam manpower reductions, ordered all commanders to "clean house" by administratively separating men who did not meet Marine Corps per­formance and disciplinary standards. The commands in Vietnam took full advantage of this policy In Oc­tober 1970, for instance, the 1st Marine Division direct­ed that "Individual Marines whose service is characterized by a record of substandard performance of duty, numerous minor disciplinary infractions, or diagnosed character behavior disorders" be processed for administrative discharge. Many division Marines fitted into those categories. During 1969, the division issued 121 administrative discharges; in 1970, it issued 809.90

From the commander's point of view, administra­tive discharge had the great virtue of ridding the unit of troublemakers comparatively quickly, by relatively simple procedures. The Military Justice Act of 1968, which went into effect on 1 July 1969, had length­ened and complicated the military judicial process;*** but an administrative separation could be accomtain cases—such as unsuitability by reason of sexual deviance and unfitness due to active sexual perversion—had to be referred to the CMC, as did drug cases until early 1970. A Marine proposed by his commander for undesirable discharge was entitled to a hearing before a board of officers convened by the appropriate commander with general courtmartial authority. The defendant automatically received military counsel and could retain a civilian lawyer at his own expense; he could present witnesses on his behalf and ques­tion the command's witnesses. The board then would recommend either retention or discharge, subject to review by the commander convening the board, who could accept the decision, modify it in favor of the defendant, or set it aside and convene a new board. Marine Corps Separation and Retirement Manual (MCO P1900.16), paras. 6002, 6005, 6009-6021, 6024.

* The Marine Corps today (early 1986) has a general drug ex­emption program under policies and procedures prescribed by DOD and the Secretary of the Navy. The program is "a legal guarantee of exemption from adverse disciplinary and/or administrative con­sequences which may result from the disclosure ... of personal drug abuse for the purpose of facilitating treatment or rehabilita­tion." It is now "the policy of the Marine Corps to prevent and eliminate drug abuse within the Marine Corps and to restore to full duty those Marines who have abused drugs and who have poten­tial for continued useful service." The exemption privilege can be exercised only through voluntary disclosure and only once by any individual. Marine Corps Order (MCO) 5300.12, dtd 25Jun84. ** Administrative discharges could be honorable, general, or un­desirable; [he two most unfavorable types of separation — Bad Con­duct Discharges and Dishonorable Discharges—could he issued only by sentence of courtmartial. Administrative discharges could be given on a number of grounds. The most common grounds were Con­venience of the Government, Unsuitability, and Undesirability. Dis­charges on the first two of these grounds had to be honorable or general; discharge for unfitness had to be undesirable unless cir­cumstances in a particular case warranted an honorable or general discharge. On most grounds, either the CMC or the individual's superior in the chain of command having general courtmartial con­vening authority could issue an administrative discharge, but cer-

*** Under the Military Justice Act of 1968, both special and gener­al courtmartial, had to be tried with the full panoply of a certified military judge and judge-advocate prosecution and defense coun­sel. Further, most offenders of any type could have their cases tried by courtmartial. This created an immediate strain on the limited number of military lawyers with the commands. The 1st Marine Division, to alleviate this problem, created a "County Courthouse" of continuously sitting military courts at division headquarters to try all special courts-martial from the various battalions. See 1st MarDivO P5800-1B, dtd 5Fcb70. in 1st MarDiv ComdC, R-b70.