CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR
By Wayne C. Bengston

There has not been such a controversial subject as the causes of the civil war. It has lasted for over one hundred and thirty-nine years and will probably go on for another one hundred and thirty nine years. Call it the Civil War, War of the Rebellion, War Between the States, The War of Northern Aggression; all these names applied are proper in accordance to how one views one's belief. It was a war of beliefs. Neither side was totally right, nor was either side totally wrong in their beliefs. Zealous firebrands of both beliefs for decades broadcast abuse on economics, politics, and morality until no reasoning between them could be heard. History books say that the war began on April 12, 1861 when the forces under Confederate General Pierre Toutant Beauregard fired upon Ft. Sumter in the bay of Charleston, SC. In reality, the war between the beliefs of the North and the South began many years prior to this date in addition to military action between the two factions. Ft. Sumter was the opening of the Pandora’s box.

One must understand, that during that period of time, political beliefs were a lot different from what we understand them today. From the signing of the Declaration of Independence and from the implementation of the Constitution of the United States, States held the belief that they should be able to decide on what type of style of life they should live under state law in accordance with the wishes of the state's populace, and that the federal government should not interfere. There was more loyalty towards one's state than there was to the federal government. This was true for both those living in the North and in the South. In today's society, with migration from state to state, loyalty for one's original state has waned in strength, and a stronger feeling has developed for the Union as a whole.

If one looks at one of the main causes of the Civil War, it would be that a minority of Northern politicians and individuals tried to force their beliefs upon the South and to tell them how they should live. Of course, those in the South resented this, thus opening up a division between the two geographic areas of our nation. The northern minority was the Abolitionists. Those that believed that slavery was inherently wrong and should be abolished at all costs. To the South, slavery was necessary for their economic existence and way of life. Slavery existed in both the North and the South long before the Revolutionary War. Freedom from slavery probably began in 1775, when Rhode Island gave freedom to any child born of a slave mother. In 1787, the Northwest Ordinance barred slavery from lands north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River. As of January 1, 1808, Federal Law made it illegal to import Negroes. The majority of those that lived in the North, would, according to today's standards, be considered racists. They had little feelings towards the Negroes and considered them a sub-standard race, and had little feelings toward the issue of slavery either way. This can be exemplified by the fact that Negroes freed from bondage by Union forces were considered to be "contraband property", not free men. In the South, the majority of the populace never owned a slave, nor was it apt to. According to the census of 1860, there was only one Southerner out of ten that owned slaves. Approximately thirty-six percent of those that owned slaves, only had one or two. Yet, prior to 1830, it was the South that led the country in efforts to achieve gradual emancipation or recognize Negroes in Africa.

In the 1840's and 1850's, economically, the South was a great deal richer than the North, primarily due to the exports of cotton ,tobacco, rice, sugar, corn , wheat, and indigo. Living agriculturally, they depended on slave labor to work the fields. Good prices could be obtained by the export of these products , especially cotton that was produced inexpensively due to the invention of the cotton gin, and profits were high. In a sense, plantation owners ruled the Southland; they formed a wealthy and powerful aristocracy with fixed traditions and manners - a baronial way of life and cavalier philosophy that set a tone for the rest. Small farmers, professional men, share croppers all embraced and endorsed this manner of life, for they were monarchs of their own realm.

According to DeBow’s Review of January 1861, the South believed that without the institution of slavery, the great staple products of the South would cease to be grown, and the immense annual results which were distributed among every social class of the community, and which gave life to every branch of industry, would cease.

The North's economical strength came from manufacturing; where wages were paid, and profit was not as great. Yet the wages paid to free tradesmen in the South were higher than in the North. Bricklayers received $2.50 - $3.50 in the South in comparison to the $1.00 - $2.00 in the North; Carpenters received $2.25 - $2.75 in comparison to $1.50 - $1.75; and common Laborers received $1.00 - $1.50 in comparison . These comparisons were compiled by Senator Andrew Johnson of Tennessee and presented to Congress according to the January 1861 issue of DeBow’s Review. Much of the South’s manufactured equipment was imported. Congress imposed, to what the South believed, unfair high tariffs on these imports, thus increasing the division between the North and the South.

In 1820, the Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in lands north of Missouri's southern border, and its provisions tested the utmost strength of the Constitution. Tension again came in 1832 as South Carolina adopted an ordinance nullifying Federal tariffs as measures that favored Northern manufacturers. Firebrand South Carolina threatened secession. President Andrew Jackson promised a lower tariff - and issued a proclamation warning that secession and disunion by armed force was an act of treason and would be dealt with as such. The lower tariffs were placed in March 1833, placating the state and lowering the crisis.

It was a power struggle over who should have control for Congress. In 1849, the Senate was balanced with 15 free states and 15 slave states. California wanted to enter the Union as a free state which would destroy that balance. After long and bitter debates, the Compromise of 1850 emerged and California entered the Union as a free state; the South getting a tougher fugitive-slave law in return. New Mexico and Utah gained territorial status with the right to decide the question of slavery on their soil, whereas another law forbade the slave trade in the District of Columbia. The conflicts of principles remained. For the South, it was not that entities were to have slavery, but that they had the "Right" to have slavery. Slaves were considered property, and the South believed that the Federal government should not by law, dictate what property one can or cannot own. Once again, the conflict of moral values prevailed.

The South was continuously on the defensive. In 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act that wiped out the old Missouri Compromise line and opened more of the West to slavery. The young new Republican Party sprung up and dedicated itself to repeal this law and to place limits on the spread of slavery. Kansas became a battle ground of Abolitionists and those with pro-slavery beliefs. Pro-slavery border ruffians from Missouri raided and sacked the town of Lawrence, and the Zealous Abolitionist John Brown began his crusade of murder and destruction at Pottawatomie Creek. Anarchy reigned and Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas".

In 1857, Abolitionists of the North and South were enraged when the United States Supreme Court gave their decision in the case of Dred Scott. Dred Scott, a Negro in Missouri, sued for his freedom. He claimed that he had lived on free soil as established by the Missouri Compromise, and thus he contended, he became a free man. In a decision issued by Chief Justice Taney, the court ruled that Congress had no power to limit the expansion of slavery - that the Missouri Compromise had always been unconstitutional, thus, Dred Scott remained a slave. In addition, three Justices wrote in their opinions that no Negro or member of an inferior race could ever be a citizen of the United States.

Furor rose again in October 1859, when John Brown and 21 of his followers, seized the United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry. A detachment of Marines under the command of Col. Robert E. Lee was dispatched by train to squash this invasion of government property. An alarm went through the slave states for fear that a Negro uprising was eminent. The invasion lasted thirty-six hours, ending with Lee capturing John Brown. John Brown was tried for murder, fomenting slave insurrection, and treason against Virginia, convicted and hanged. Abolitionists had their martyr; the South, a fear of what was to come.

In early 1860, the only political party that embraced both pro-slavery and anti-slavery sections was the Democratic party. They were moderate in their political stance up to this point in time. The party was convening in April in Charleston, SC for the purpose of nominating a candidate for the presidency. The future of our country for the next five years was determined by that convention. The "Prince of Fire-Eaters" William Lowndes Yancy, an avid secessionist from South Carolina, was determined that the convention would fail and that the popular Illinois Senator, Stephen A. Douglas would not get the party's nomination. He felt that the party bound, divided, and distracted the South and he dedicated himself to the task to see that the party would be broken up, and the South become independent. His mentor was John C. Calhoun. The Democratic party, dominated by the Northern faction, was known to have unity, and this unity was a tradition of the party. Yancy in his fervor was outraged by Douglas's Freeport Doctrine, which held that in no way could Federal laws protect slavery in a territory where the people themselves wanted no slavery. This doctrine was sacrilegious to the beliefs of those political leaders of the South. There were those that would fight for Douglas, no matter what the cost. The convention battle had begun and unity that was once a tradition, was eradicated.

The first battle lines of the convention were drawn when deciding what the Party Platform should be. The pro-Douglas groups agreed to use the same platform that was adopted in Cincinnati four years previously, in 1856. It was to be amended to include that all slavery issues were to be settled by the judicial means of the Supreme Court. In addition, the amended platform contained planks that there ought to be a railroad to California, the annexation of Cuba, and that attempts should be made to nullify fugitive slave laws, which were considered deplorable.

This platform was not acceptable at all by the Southern Wing of the party, and formulated a platform that stated, "Resolved, that the Democracy of the United States hold these cardinal principles on the subject of slavery in the Territories; First, that Congress has no power to abolish slavery in the Territories. Second, that the Territorial Legislature has no power to abolish slavery in any Territory, nor to prohibit the introduction of slaves therein, nor any power to exclude slavery therefrom, nor any right to destroy or impair the right of property in slaves by any legislation whatever." These words depicted completely the beliefs of the Prince of Fire-Eaters, William L. Yancy. This platform accomplished the goals of Yancy to split the party.

Six candidates were nominated; Douglas of Illinois, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee; Daniel S. Dickinson, of New York; Joe Lane of Oregon, James Guthrie of Kentucky; and R.M.T. Hunter of Virginia. There were 253 votes in the convention. In order to win the Party's nomination, a candidate would need 202 votes. Douglas on the first ballot received the largest amount of votes, 145 1/2, but yet far short of the 202 required. Fifty-seven ballots later, Douglas could receive 152 1/2 votes. In desperation, on May 3 the delegates agreed to stop voting and adjourn the convention, and that the convention would meet again on June 18.

The Northern wing of the Democratic Party did meet on June 18 in Baltimore and nominated Douglas for President. The Southern wing met June 28 in Baltimore and nominated Vice President John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for President. The Conservative wing of the party that stood for the Union and strict law enforcement formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee for President. The split of the Democratic Party in this fashion guaranteed a victory for the candidate of the Republican Party, Abraham Lincoln.

The threat of secession was very evident after the November election in which Lincoln was elected President. Lincoln opposed slavery's spread, although he did not believe in interfering with its existing limits. He did however stand firm in his belief that the Nation should not be divided and should be preserved as a whole Union. Lincoln sent his position on slavery to the Senate Committee. It was: Amend the Constitution to say it should never be altered to interfere with slavery; amend the Fugitive Slave Law to grant trial by jury; request the states to repeal laws that contravene constitutional acts. In his desire to keep the Union as one, on November 30, 1860, Lincoln wrote Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia and who later would become the Vice President of the Confederacy: "Do the people of the South really entertain fears that a Republican administration would directly or indirectly interfere with their slaves or with them about their slaves? If they do, I wish to assure you . . . that there is no cause for such fears." This plea was to no avail, for the South had good reason to believe the politicians of the Republican party, many of whom were Abolitionists, would indeed interfere in their way of life.

On December 18,1860, a committee of the United States Senate was formed to investigate the possibility of a "plan of adjustment" that might solve the growing secession crisis. Called the "Committee of Thirteen" because of the number of its members, it failed to agree on any one proposal but did have a number of worthy ideas presented. Compromise proposals were made by Senators Crittenden of TN, Robert Toombs of GA, Jefferson Davis of MS, Stephen Douglas of IL, and William Seward of NY. On the motion of Jefferson Davis, it was decided that no proposal would be reported as adopted unless supported by a majority of the Republicans and a majority of the Democrats serving on the committee. Under this restriction, the committee was unable to agree upon a satisfactory "plan of adjustment" and reported so to the Senate on December 31, 1860. (Senate Report #288, 36th Congress, 2nd Session) . The prominent proposal brought forth in this committee was one by Senator John Crittenden of KY. His Compromise, as offered on December 18,1860, two days prior to South Carolina’s secession, consisted of a preamble, six proposed constitutional amendments, and four proposed Congressional resolutions. Perhaps if the adoption restriction had not been set as it was, and only a majority of committee members voting in the affirmative would be suffice for adoption, it is possible that a compromise might have been adopted by Congress and a division of the country avoided. Yet, even then, it would have been too late, for those politicians in South Carolina had already made up their minds to go ahead with secession.

Before Lincoln was able to take office, his dreams to keep the Union as one were shattered. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina voted an ordinance of secession from the Union, repealing its 1788 ratification of the U.S. Constitution. In doing so, South Carolina declared it was no longer an entity of the United States; that it was totally independent sovereign entity within itself. Exactly one week later, militia troops of South Carolina seized the Union posts of Castle Pinckney and Fort Moultrie in the Charleston Harbor, in addition to the US Revenue cutter William Aiken. On the December 30, they seized the United States Arsenal at Charleston, and three days later on January 2, seized Fort Johnson in the Charleston Harbor. It was their belief that since these Union establishments were located upon their soil, that they rightfully belonged to South Carolina, not to the United States, and the United States should evacuate these installations. South Carolina, and later the Confederate States of America, wanted the fort to be evacuated peacefully and sent commissioners to Washington to discuss a peaceable evacuation of all installations. Lincoln however was adamant in having these installations remain status quo, for he had pledged to protect the property of the United States, especially Sumter at Charleston and Pickens at Pensacola.

On January 9, 1861, Mississippi followed South Carolina's road to secession; Florida on January 10, Alabama on January 11, Georgia on January 19, Louisiana on January 26, and Texas on February 1. Virginia had delayed secession until after the fall of Ft Sumter and on April 17, decided to follow the ways of her fellow southern states. Arkansas's legislature voted for secession by a vote of 69 to 1 on May 6. North Carolina followed on May 21 and Tennessee, on May 7, entered a military league with the Confederacy supported by a poplar vote of secession on June 8.

Forty-two delegates from South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Louisiana, Georgia, and Alabama met in Montgomery, ALA on February 4, 1861 to form a new nation, the Confederate States of America. Delegates from North Carolina arrived on February 6 and pleaded in vain for reconciliation. The Texas delegates arrived on February 18, too late to vote on the provisional constitution. This group of delegates from seceding states, adopted a provisional constitution of the Confederate States of America on February 8, and on the next day elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, provisional President, and Alexander H. Stevens of Georgia, provisional Vice President. Davis was sworn into office at Montgomery on February 18, 1861.

A permanent constitution was adopted on March 11, 1861. It provided that the President should be elected for a single term of six years and it abolished the African slave trade. The Confederate Congress moved to Richmond, Virginia on July 20,1861 which then became the capitol of the Confederacy.

This new nation had hoped to maintain peaceable relations with its former parent, the United States of America. The main obstacle was the properties of the United States that now resided in the new nation. However, the strain on peaceable relations came to be before the Confederacy was born. Major Anderson, the Union commander of the US military installations in Charleston harbor, knowing that Ft Moultie was not defendable from land attack, secretly transferred his forces to Ft Sumter. He had been assigned to defend the Charleston harbor for the United States, and he intended to do so. Governor Pickens had warned the US government, not to reinforce nor re-supply those forces under Anderson, and Anderson's move to Sumter was totally against the wishes of the South Carolina government.

In ignoring South Carolina's mandate, actions on part of the United States caused the first overt act of the war to take place in Charleston harbor on January 8, 1861. General Winfield Scott, in avoiding to send a warship, leased the steamship, Star of the West which carried aboard 200 soldiers, ammunition, and supplies to reinforce Sumter. When the ship was within two miles of Ft. Sumter, a battery on Morris Island, manned by South Carolina troops, fired one shot at it, as also did the battery at Ft. Moultrie. Then five rounds were fired from Morris Island, and the ship was struck twice. The captain of the Star of the West, hoisted the United States ensign, but getting no signals from Sumter, turned around and headed back to New York.

On February 27, the new President of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis, named Pierre G. T. Beauregard as the first brigadier general of the Confederacy and sent him to take command over all military forces at Charleston. Now, Beauregard in command of the guns trained on Ft. Sumter, confronted his former artillery teacher at West Point, Major Robert Anderson, who would return fire from his guns at Sumter. On April 11, Beauregard sent an ultimatum that would facilitate the removal of the garrison with arms and property, and send private property to any place desired. Anderson's reply was, "Gentlemen if you do not batter the fort to pieces about us, we shall be starved out in a few days."

Anderson's response was sent to Montgomery. Confederate Secretary of War Walker replied to Beauregard: "Do not desire needlessly to bombard Fort Sumter. If Major Anderson will state the time at which, as indicated by him, he will evacuate, and agree that in the meantime he will not use his guns against us, unless ours should be employed against Fort Sumter, you are thus authorized to avoid the effusion of blood. If this, or its equivalent, be refused, reduce the fort as your judgment decided to be most practical."

Anderson also on April 12, notified Beauregard that he would, if provided with the proper and necessary means of transportation, evacuate Ft Sumter by noon of the 15th, if he had not received prior to that time, controlling instructions or additional supplies. Knowing that United States had supplies on their way to Sumter, Beauregard had Colonel Chesnut dictate the message and for Captain Stephen D. Lee to deliver the following message to Anderson:

Fort Sumter, SC April 12, 3:20 A.M.

Sir:

By authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time. We have the honor to be very respectfully,

Your obedient servants,

/s/ James Chesnut, Jr., Aide de Camp

/s/ Stephen D. Lee, Captain CS Army, Aide de Camp

At precisely 4:30 A.M., Captain George S. James, from Fort Johnson on James Island, fired the signal to commence the attack from a mortar. Soon, firing from Moultrie and Johnson became general. The war between the states that remained loyal to the Union and those that chose to secede from the Union had begun formally. Anderson surrendered the fort on April 14, 1861. No lives were lost on either side during the bombardment. The terms called for evacuation by Major Anderson and his garrison, taking their possessions and such provisions as were left and embarking on a steamer furnished by Beauregard, which took them to ships of the United States fleet outside the harbor. Before leaving, they raised the United States flag and gave it a formal salute, and then hauled it down. During the salute, a gun burst, killing one man. Four years were to pass before that flag was raised again, on the anniversary of its surrender, April 14, by the hands of General Robert Anderson who, as major, had hauled it down.

Could this war have been diverted by cooler heads and in a dialog of understanding communications? Very possibly. If Yancy had not prevailed in splitting the Democratic Party, would Douglas have claimed victory over Lincoln and thus delay the animosities of secession? A very high probability. If the Confederate States of America were allowed to continue peaceably, would slavery have ended in the near future in that country? Again, historical studies have indicated that they would have ended slavery. Are states sovereign entities within a Union and have certain rights to live as their populace dictates? That question is still debated today in much controversy. In general, it is the belief of this author that the Civil War was the result of political and moral indifferences, that due to zealous personalities of politicians, could not be averted.

RESOURCES:

• The Coming Fury, Bruce Catton, Washington Square Press
• The Civil War, Robert Paul Jordan, National Geographic Society
• Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Volume I, Shelby Foote, Castle Press
• Reveille in Washington, Margaret Leech, Harper & Bros Publishers
• Civil War: The Years Asunder, Editors of Country Beautiful
• The Civil War, Bruce Catton & James McPherson, Viking Press
• DeBow’s Review, James Dunwoody Brownson DeBow, January 1861