probable that from the first a feeling of impatience and resentment was cherished by the citizens of the Middle Ages against the coarse but powerful masters whom they were obliged to obey. It could hardly be doubted that when opportunity should occur the cities would revolt and strike for liberty and independence.

Before proceeding to give an account of the insurrection of the mediaeval burghers against the feudal lords it may prove of interest to sketch the condition of life within one of the corporate towns of the twelfth century. Strange is the contrast here presented to any thing with which the citizens of the nineteenth century are familiar. The town of the Middle Ages was walled to begin with. The rampart, the tower, the gate, the bastion, were necessities of the situation. Protection to what was within, defense against what was without, seemed to be-and was-the first condition of urban prosperity and peace. The city life of the Middle. Ages was shut up within an enclosure and was set in the strongest contrast with the open and roving life of the country.

Not only were the cities themselves built with walls and towers, but the houses of the burgesses were constructed with the same regard to defense. The dominant thought was war. The building was generally three stories in height, each story consisting of but a single room. The structure was square, and whether of wood or stone was characterized by great strength and solidity. The first story was the eating room of the family. Nor was the burgher over scrupulous about admitting domestic animals to this apartment. In the room above, which was high and strong, the master and family had their dwelling. The third story was occupied by the children and domestics. This room was well adapted for defense, the windows being narrow and constructed with a view to the discharge of missiles. On the top of the house was a look-out or observatory, from which in times of danger the burgher might survey his surroundings and order the best means of defense. As a general rule the dwelling was flanked with a tower built four-square, with projecting corners, and of the most solid materials which the means of the builder could command.

As to the burgess himself he presented a type of character not other where to be found in the Middle Ages. He was a soldier citizen By vocation he was a merchant, a trader, a manufacturer, a gardener. In him was an element of thrift for which one might have looked in vain outside of the city walls Perhaps the burgess owned and tilled a small farm beyond the defenses, and from this gathered the produce which he sold in the market Perhaps he was a maker of cheese. Perhaps he was a smith, a carpenter, a tanner, a manufacturer of harness. The mediaeval town; thus became a kind of rookeries for the industrious, subject always to the discouraging circumstance of the feudal despotism under which they groaned.

For purposes of government and defense the burgesses were organized into a municipality. There was a burgomaster, or magistrate of the town, who was the chief executive, and who presided over the town council But the authority was lodged in the whole body of citizens. These were called together by the ringing of the church bells, and questions of policy and management were submitted. to their vote. Elections of officers were held in the manner of modern times, and every man had his voice in the state: the state was the city.

The perils to which the cities were exposed from the rapacity of the feudal lords encouraged the organization of a town militia Every burgess became a soldier. He possessed a coat-of-mail and a pike. He was expected to turn out at a moment's notice, clad in his own armor. But while the civic community was converted into a soldiery, it was soldiery of defense. No aggressive movements were contemplated. The bottom fact in the whole situation was a property interest which must be defended, and to this end the citizen democrats of the Middle Age bent all their energies.

Great was the activity, the courage, the enterprise of the mediaeval burgesses, in those happy intervals when the sun of peace shed his effulgence through the rifts of feudal warfare, the cities were all a hum with industry. The merchant grew wealthy, the tradesman had his home, the smith enlarged his forge, the gardener obtained a better price for his carrots and cabbages.

It will be easily perceived that the condition of affairs in the towns tended powerful